NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History,
Chapter 4: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
Cultural Developments (c. 600 BCE-600 CE)
Updated
Syllabus for 2024-2025 Exams
Answer in 100-150 words
Q1. Were the
ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and
materialists? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer:
Yes, the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers were different from those of the
fatalists and materialists. Upanishadic thinkers believed in the concept of atman
(the self) and Brahman (the ultimate reality), emphasizing the spiritual
nature of human existence and the possibility of liberation through
self-realization. They focused on internal spiritual development and ethical
living. In contrast, fatalists, like the Ajivikas, believed that everything was
predetermined and that human effort could not change one’s destiny.
Materialists, such as the Lokayatas, rejected spiritual concepts altogether,
asserting that only the material world exists and that there is no afterlife or
spiritual dimension. The Upanishadic thinkers thus differed in their emphasis
on spiritual growth and self-realization, whereas fatalists and materialists
denied these possibilities.
Q2. Summarise
the central teachings of Jainism.
Answer:
The central teachings of Jainism revolve around the principle of ahimsa
(non-violence) towards all living beings. Jainism teaches that the world is
inhabited by living beings with souls, including plants, animals, and even
inanimate objects like rocks and water. To achieve liberation from the cycle of
birth and rebirth, one must avoid harming any living creature. Jainism also
emphasizes strict asceticism and penance as a means to purify the soul from karma
(the accumulated consequences of one’s actions). The five vows taken by Jain
monks and nuns—non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, and
non-possession—are central to the practice of Jainism. The ultimate goal is moksha,
or liberation from the cycle of rebirth, which can only be achieved through
renouncing worldly desires and leading a monastic life.
Q3. Discuss the
role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.
Answer:
The begums of Bhopal, especially Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan
Jehan Begum, played a crucial role in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.
During the 19th century, European archaeologists, such as Major Alexander
Cunningham, became interested in the site and started excavating it. The begums
recognized the historical and cultural significance of Sanchi and provided
financial support for the preservation of the site. Shahjehan Begum funded the
construction of a museum and a guesthouse for John Marshall, the archaeologist
who wrote important volumes on Sanchi. She also sponsored the publication of
Marshall’s work, ensuring that the site received attention and protection.
Thanks to the begums’ efforts, the stupa complex was saved from potential
destruction and remained a key Buddhist archaeological site in India.
Q4. Read this
short inscription and answer:
In the year 33
of the maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot
season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the
bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who
knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the
Tipitaka, together with her father and mother.
(a) How did
Dhanavati date her inscription?
Answer: Dhanavati dated her inscription according to the reign of
Maharaja Huvishka, a Kushana ruler, specifying the 33rd year of his reign.
(b) Why do you
think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?
Answer: Dhanavati installed an image of the Bodhisatta as an act of
devotion and religious merit, reflecting her deep connection to Buddhist
teachings and the desire to contribute to the Buddhist tradition.
(c) Who were
the relatives she mentioned?
Answer: Dhanavati mentioned her aunt, Bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who was
well-versed in the Tipitaka, and her father and mother, who participated in the
installation of the Bodhisatta image.
(d) What
Buddhist text did she know?
Answer: Dhanavati was knowledgeable in the Tipitaka, the three
main texts of the Buddhist canon.
(e) From whom
did she learn this text?
Answer: Dhanavati learned the Tipitaka from Bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who in
turn was the pupil of Bhikkhu Bala.
Q5. Why do you
think women and men joined the sangha?
Answer:
Women and men joined the sangha for several reasons, primarily to escape the
rigid caste system and social hierarchies of the time. The sangha offered an
alternative way of life based on equality, where individuals could renounce worldly
attachments and strive for spiritual liberation. Both women and men were
attracted to the opportunity to lead a life of simplicity, contemplation, and
meditation. For many, the sangha provided a space for self-realization and
personal growth, free from societal obligations and material concerns.
Moreover, the emphasis on individual agency and moral conduct in Buddhism
allowed people from all walks of life, including the marginalized, to find
purpose and meaning through spiritual practice.
Write a short essay (about 500 words) on the following:
Q6. To what
extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the
sculpture at Sanchi?
Answer:
Knowledge of Buddhist literature significantly enhances our understanding of
the sculpture at Sanchi, as many of the images and symbols carved into the
stupas are rooted in Buddhist teachings and stories. The Jataka tales,
for instance, recount the previous lives of the Buddha, and many scenes from
these tales are depicted on the gateways and railings at Sanchi. Understanding
these stories allows us to appreciate the narrative content of the sculptures
and their moral and ethical messages, such as themes of generosity, compassion,
and self-sacrifice.
Additionally,
Buddhist literature provides insights into the symbolic meaning of certain
architectural and sculptural elements. For example, the stupa itself, as
described in Buddhist texts, represents the Buddha’s parinirvana (final
passing away) and serves as a place of worship and meditation for the faithful.
The harmika, a square railing on top of the stupa, symbolizes the
Buddha’s enlightenment, while the chhatra (umbrella) represents his
spiritual authority. The wheel (dharmachakra) depicted in several
sculptures symbolizes the Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath, where he set in
motion the “wheel of dharma.”
Buddhist texts
also explain the importance of certain rituals performed at stupas, such as
circumambulation. Worshippers would walk around the stupa in a clockwise
direction, keeping the monument to their right, mimicking the sun’s path. This
ritual is directly linked to the Buddhist idea of following the “right
path” to enlightenment, and sculptures of worshippers walking around
stupas at Sanchi reflect this practice.
Moreover, the
sculptures at Sanchi often employ aniconic representations of the
Buddha, in which his presence is suggested through symbols rather than direct
images. For instance, an empty throne or a footprint symbolizes the Buddha’s
absence and his enlightenment. Understanding these symbolic representations
requires familiarity with the Buddhist philosophy that views the Buddha
as transcending ordinary human existence after achieving nirvana.
In conclusion,
Buddhist literature provides the necessary context for interpreting the rich
visual imagery at Sanchi. Without knowledge of the texts, much of the meaning
behind the sculptures and architectural features might be lost, as they are
deeply intertwined with the narratives, philosophies, and rituals of the
Buddhist tradition.
Q7. Figs. 4.32
and 4.33 are two scenes from Sanchi. Describe what you see in each of them,
focusing on the architecture, plants and animals, and the activities. Identify which
one shows a rural scene and which an urban scene, giving reasons for your
answer.
Answer: ...)
Q8. Discuss the
development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of
Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Answer:
The development of sculpture and architecture during the rise of Vaishnavism
and Shaivism marked a significant transformation in religious expression in
India. These two traditions, which emerged as dominant forms of worship in
Hinduism, influenced both temple architecture and sculptural art.
In Vaishnavism,
Vishnu was worshipped as the supreme deity, often depicted in his various
avatars, such as Rama and Krishna. Temples dedicated to Vishnu
and his avatars became important centers of worship. Sculptural representations
of Vishnu typically portrayed him holding symbols of his divine power, such as
the chakra (discus) and the gada (mace). Architectural features,
such as garbhagrihas (sanctum sanctorum), housed images of Vishnu, often
depicted reclining on the serpent Sheshnag or rescuing the earth goddess
in his boar incarnation, Varaha.
Similarly, the
rise of Shaivism led to the construction of temples dedicated to Shiva,
one of the principal deities in Hinduism. In Shaiva temples, Shiva was
often represented in the form of the linga, a symbol of divine
Q7. Figs. 4.32
and 4.33 are two scenes from Sanchi. Describe what you see in each of them,
focusing on the architecture, plants and animals, and the activities. Identify
which one shows a rural scene and which an urban scene, giving reasons for your
answer.
Answer:
In Figure
4.32, we see a bustling urban environment with intricately designed
architecture, including gateways and stupas, which are prominent features in
Sanchi. The presence of stupas suggests that this scene depicts a religious or
ceremonial occasion, possibly involving the veneration of relics. People are
seen moving around, engaging in activities such as circumambulation and ritual
offerings. Trees and plants are included in the background, but they are
secondary to the architectural elements.
In Figure
4.33, the scene focuses more on a rural setting. Huts made of thatch and
simpler forms of construction dominate the landscape. Animals such as cattle
and horses are present, and individuals are engaged in everyday activities like
farming or tending to animals. The trees are more prominent here, symbolizing
the natural surroundings of a rural environment.
Figure 4.32 represents an urban scene
because of the presence of religious architecture and structured activities
around the stupas. Figure 4.33 depicts a rural scene due to the
simplicity of the setting, the involvement of animals, and the focus on
agriculture and nature.
Q8. Discuss the
development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of
Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Answer:
The rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism in early Indian religious
history had a profound impact on sculpture and architecture. These two major
sects within Hinduism led to the creation of distinctive religious imagery and
temple architecture, reflecting the worship of Vishnu and Shiva, respectively.
In Vaishnavism,
Vishnu was worshipped as the supreme deity who incarnated in different forms,
known as avatars, to restore cosmic order. This belief influenced temple
architecture and sculpture. Temples dedicated to Vishnu were constructed with
elaborate depictions of his avatars, such as Rama, Krishna, and Varaha.
Sculptures showed Vishnu holding his characteristic symbols—the chakra (discus),
shankha (conch), and gada (mace). The Garbhagriha (sanctum
sanctorum) in Vaishnavite temples housed images of Vishnu, often reclining on
the serpent Sheshnag or depicted as Narasimha, the man-lion
avatar.
Shaivism focused on the worship of Shiva, and
the most iconic representation of Shiva in temple architecture is the linga,
a symbol of his divine power. Shiva temples often featured the linga at
the center of the garbhagriha, with intricate carvings of Shiva as Nataraja
(the cosmic dancer), Ardhanarishvara (the half-man, half-woman form),
and other representations. Sculptures in Shaivite temples depicted various
aspects of Shiva, such as his trident (trishula) and third eye, symbolizing
destruction and regeneration.
Both
Vaishnavism and Shaivism led to significant developments in temple
architecture. Temples became more complex, with tall shikharas
(spires) rising above the garbhagriha, symbolizing the cosmic mountain Meru.
The outer walls of the temples were adorned with detailed carvings of deities,
celestial beings, and mythological stories. These developments in religious
architecture reflected the evolving religious landscape, where temples were not
just places of worship but also centers of social and cultural activity.
The growth of bhakti
(devotional worship) in both traditions further influenced the arts. Devotional
themes were incorporated into temple sculptures, emphasizing the personal
relationship between the devotee and the deity. The creation of these temples
and sculptures marked a shift in religious practice, where image worship
and temple rituals became central aspects of religious life in ancient India.
Q9. Discuss how
and why stupas were built.
Answer:
Stupas are ancient Buddhist monuments that were built to house relics of the
Buddha or other revered monks. The tradition of building stupas originated in
India and played a central role in Buddhist worship and meditation practices.
The construction
of stupas typically began with the enshrinement of relics, such as the
remains of the Buddha, sacred objects he used, or ashes of prominent monks.
These relics were placed in a reliquary, often made of precious materials, and
buried in a hemispherical mound called the anda. The anda symbolized the
cosmic mountain Meru, a central element in Buddhist cosmology. Over
time, stupas evolved to become more complex structures, featuring elements such
as the harmika, a square railing at the top of the mound symbolizing the
abode of the gods, and the yashti, a central pillar rising from the harmika,
often crowned by a chhatra (umbrella) representing the Buddha’s
spiritual authority.
Stupas were
often built by rulers, wealthy patrons, and the Buddhist community as acts of
religious merit. Inscriptions on stupa railings and gateways record the donations
made by kings, merchants, guilds, and ordinary people, highlighting the
communal effort involved in their construction. For instance, the Satavahana
kings were known to sponsor the construction of stupas, while guilds of
ivory workers funded parts of the Sanchi Stupa‘s gateways.
The Ashokavadana
records that Emperor Ashoka played a crucial role in promoting the
construction of stupas. Ashoka, a fervent patron of Buddhism, is said to have
distributed relics of the Buddha across his empire and ordered the construction
of stupas to enshrine them. This initiative not only spread Buddhism but also
helped to unify the diverse regions of his empire through a shared religious
symbol.
The building of
stupas served several purposes:
- They functioned as religious
sites where Buddhists could meditate and perform rituals such as circumambulation,
walking around the stupa in a clockwise direction as a sign of respect. - They also acted as pilgrimage
sites, attracting devotees from distant regions who came to venerate
the relics contained within them. - Furthermore, stupas were symbols
of Buddhist teachings, representing the Buddha’s parinirvana (final
passing away) and his teachings about the impermanence of life.
In conclusion,
stupas were built as sacred monuments to honor the Buddha, provide a focus for
Buddhist worship, and serve as a means for devotees to accumulate religious
merit. They became central to Buddhist religious life and remain important
symbols of Buddhist art and architecture today.