NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History
Chapter 3: Kinship, Caste and Class
Early Societies (c. 600 BCE-600 CE)
Syllabus for 2024-2025 Exams
Answer in 100-150 words
Q1. Explain why
patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.
Answer:
Patriliny, the tracing of descent from father to son, was particularly
important among elite families because it ensured the continuity of power,
property, and resources within the family. In early societies, especially those
dominated by kings and ruling elites, patriliny allowed sons to inherit their
fathers’ positions of power, such as kingship, as well as control over land and
other resources. This system helped maintain family lineage, ensuring that
leadership and wealth stayed within the same family across generations.
Additionally, patriliny was closely tied to the preservation of social status
and the ability to claim descent from illustrious ancestors, which was crucial
for upholding one’s legitimacy and influence within the social and political hierarchy.
Q2. Discuss
whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas.
Answer:
Kings in early states were not invariably Kshatriyas, although Brahmanical
texts like the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras prescribed that kings should
belong to the Kshatriya varna. Historical evidence suggests that several ruling
dynasties had non-Kshatriya origins. For example, the Mauryas, who established
a large empire in ancient India, were considered by some texts to be of
“low” origin. The Shungas and Kanvas, who succeeded the Mauryas, were
Brahmanas by caste. The Shakas, originally from Central Asia, were regarded as
outsiders and non-Kshatriyas, but they ruled significant parts of India. These
examples show that political power often transcended the rigid varna system,
with rulers emerging based on their ability to control resources and muster
support rather than their Kshatriya status.
Q3. Compare and
contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba, and
Matanga.
Answer:
The dharma or norms in the stories of Drona, Hidimba, and Matanga reflect
different societal expectations and practices. In the story of Drona, a
Brahmana, his refusal to teach archery to Ekalavya, a forest-dweller, reflects
the rigid Brahmanical norms regarding caste and access to knowledge. Drona
adheres to the belief that only certain classes, such as Kshatriyas, are
entitled to military training.
In contrast,
the story of Hidimba, a rakshasi who marries Bhima, shows a deviation from
Brahmanical norms. It illustrates that kinship ties could transcend caste
barriers, especially in the case of forest-dwellers or tribal communities. The
Pandavas’ acceptance of Hidimba reflects a more flexible approach to marriage
and alliances.
The story of
Matanga, a chandala, challenges Brahmanical norms by portraying him as a
virtuous and spiritually powerful individual, despite his low caste. The story
critiques the rigid social hierarchy and highlights the potential for moral and
spiritual greatness outside the Brahmanical order.
Q4. In what
ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the
Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha Sukta?
Answer:
The Buddhist theory of a social contract, as presented in the Sutta Pitaka,
differs significantly from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the
Purusha Sukta. According to the Buddhist theory, society and the institution of
kingship arose as a result of human choice, where people collectively decided
to select a ruler to maintain order and ensure justice. This implies that
social and political institutions were created by human beings and could be
changed if necessary.
In contrast,
the Brahmanical view of society, as outlined in the Purusha Sukta, presents the
social order as divinely ordained. It describes the varna system as emerging
from the body of the primeval man, Purusha, with each varna having a
predetermined role. This view suggests that the social hierarchy is natural,
eternal, and unchangeable, with each group assigned its place by divine will.
Q5. The
following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata, in which Yudhisthira, the eldest
Pandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger:
“Sanjaya,
convey my respectful greetings to all the Brahmanas and the chief priest of the
house of Dhritarashtra. I bow respectfully to teacher Drona … I hold the feet
of our preceptor Kripa … (and) the chief of the Kurus, the great Bhishma. I bow
respectfully to the old king (Dhritarashtra). I greet and ask after the health
of his son Duryodhana and his younger brother … Also greet all the young Kuru
warriors who are our brothers, sons and grandsons … Greet above all him, who is
to us like father and mother, the wise Vidura (born of a slave woman) … I bow
to the elderly ladies who are known as our mothers. To those who are our wives
you say this, “I hope they are well-protected”… Our daughters-in-law born of
good families and mothers of children greet on my behalf. Embrace for me those
who are our daughters … The beautiful, fragrant, well-dressed courtesans of
ours you should also greet. Greet the slave women and their children, greet the
aged, the maimed (and) the helpless …”
Try and
identify the criteria used to make this list – in terms of age, gender, kinship
ties. Are there any other criteria? For each category, explain why they are
placed in a particular position in the list.
Answer:
The criteria used in Yudhisthira’s list are based primarily on age, gender,
kinship ties, and social status. The list begins with Brahmanas and teachers
like Drona and Kripa, who are highly respected due to their social status and
roles as preceptors. Elders, such as Bhishma and Dhritarashtra, are greeted
next, reflecting the importance of age and seniority in the hierarchy. The
greeting of younger Kuru warriors, brothers, sons, and grandsons shows the
importance of kinship ties and the recognition of family unity.
Vidura, who is
of mixed caste, is acknowledged for his wisdom, indicating that personal
qualities can sometimes outweigh birth status. Women, including mothers, wives,
and daughters-in-law, are mentioned in the context of their familial roles and
responsibilities, reflecting the patriarchal structure of society. Courtesans
and slave women are acknowledged last, highlighting their marginal position in
the social hierarchy, while the aged, maimed, and helpless are included as a
gesture of compassion.
Write a short essay (about 500 words) on the following:
Q6. This is
what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Winternitz, wrote about
the Mahabharata: “just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire
literature … and contains so much and so many kinds of things, … (it) gives(s)
us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.”
Discuss.
Answer:
The Mahabharata is not just a single story; it is a collection of diverse
narratives, philosophical discussions, and reflections on various aspects of
life. Maurice Winternitz’s statement that the Mahabharata represents “more
of an entire literature” is an apt description of this vast epic, which
encompasses a wide range of genres, themes, and ideas. The Mahabharata includes
stories of war and heroism, love and family dynamics, dharma and morality,
political strategies, and philosophical discourses.
One of the
central features of the Mahabharata is its exploration of dharma, or the moral
and ethical duties that individuals must follow in different circumstances.
Through its characters, the epic addresses complex questions about duty,
justice, and righteousness. The dilemmas faced by figures like Yudhisthira, Arjuna,
and Karna highlight the challenges of adhering to dharma in a world fraught
with conflicting values and interests. This gives readers deep insights into
the moral concerns that shaped Indian thought.
The Mahabharata
also reflects the social structures and norms of ancient Indian society,
offering insights into kinship, caste, marriage, and gender relations. It
presents a world where kings and warriors must balance their personal desires
with the expectations of their family and society. At the same time, it
portrays the lives of ordinary people, from forest-dwellers like Ekalavya to
women like Draupadi, who navigate a patriarchal society.
Philosophically,
the Mahabharata delves into profound questions about life, death, and the
nature of the self. The Bhagavad Gita, a didactic section within the epic, is
one of the most significant texts in Indian philosophy, where Lord Krishna
advises Arjuna on the nature of duty, action, and detachment. This text alone
has had a lasting impact on Indian spiritual thought.
In addition to
its philosophical and social themes, the Mahabharata is also a rich repository
of mythology, with stories of gods, demons, and supernatural events. These
elements, combined with the human drama of the epic, have made the Mahabharata
a source of inspiration for poets, artists, and performers across generations.
Thus,
Winternitz’s observation that the Mahabharata gives an insight into the “soul
of the Indian folk” is true in many ways. The epic reflects the concerns,
values, and aspirations of ancient Indian society, while also offering timeless
lessons that continue to resonate with people today. Its literary richness and
philosophical depth make it one of the most important texts in world literature.
Q7. Discuss
whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.
Answer:
The Mahabharata, one of the longest epics in the world, spans over 100,000
verses and has a vast range of narratives, philosophies, and themes. Due to its
sheer size and complexity, it is unlikely that the Mahabharata was the work of
a single author. Instead, it is more plausible that the text evolved over
several centuries, with different layers of content being added at various
points in time.
The original
story of the Mahabharata is believed to have been composed by bardic
traditions, specifically charioteer-bards known as sutas, who would have sung
about the heroic deeds of the Kshatriya warriors. These oral compositions were
later written down, but as the text circulated, it was expanded by various
authors and redactors. The core narrative, which revolves around the conflict
between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, likely dates back to around 500 BCE.
However, the Mahabharata as we know it today continued to evolve for centuries
afterward, with significant additions being made as late as the Gupta period
(c. 400 CE).
One indication
that the Mahabharata is a composite work is the presence of both narrative and
didactic sections. The narrative parts tell the story of the great battle and
the events leading up to it, while the didactic sections, including the
Bhagavad Gita, provide philosophical discourses on dharma, morality, and the
nature of the self. These didactic sections were likely added by Brahmanical scholars
in later periods, reflecting the changing social and religious contexts of the
time.
The Critical
Edition of the Mahabharata, compiled in the 20th century by V.S. Sukthankar and
his team, highlights the regional variations in the text. Manuscripts from
different parts of India contain different versions of the same stories, as
well as entirely unique episodes that were not present in other versions. This
suggests that the Mahabharata was an open text, constantly being reworked and
adapted by various authors over time.
Furthermore,
the figure of Vyasa, traditionally regarded as the author of the Mahabharata,
is depicted in the epic itself as both a character and a narrator. This
self-referential aspect adds to the complexity of authorship, blurring the
lines between the creator and the creation. Vyasa’s role may symbolize the
collective authorship of the text, representing the contributions of multiple
authors who shaped the epic over time.
In conclusion,
the Mahabharata is unlikely to have been the work of a single author. Its
composition spans centuries, and it reflects the contributions of various oral
traditions, Brahmanical scholars, and regional storytellers. The result is a
dynamic and layered text that continues to capture the imagination of readers
and performers across generations.
Q8. How
important were gender differences in early societies? Give reasons for your
answer.
Answer:
Gender differences were highly significant in early societies, shaping social
roles, responsibilities, and access to resources. In patriarchal societies like
those described in ancient Indian texts, men typically held positions of power
and authority, while women were often relegated to domestic roles and had
limited rights.
One of the
clearest examples of gender differences in early societies is the practice of
patriliny, where descent and inheritance were traced through the male line.
Sons, rather than daughters, were considered the rightful heirs to family
property, land, and power. This system reinforced male dominance in both the
private and public spheres, as men were seen as the primary actors in
maintaining family lineage and controlling wealth.
Marriage
practices in early societies also reflected gender inequalities. Exogamy, the
practice of marrying outside one’s kin group, was considered important, and
daughters were often seen as “gifts” to be exchanged between
families. The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, which laid down social norms,
emphasized the duty of fathers to marry off their daughters to suitable families.
Women had little say in their own marriages, and polygyny (the practice of men
having multiple wives) was more common than polyandry (the practice of women
having multiple husbands).
While women
were often excluded from public and political life, some exceptions existed,
particularly among elite families. For example, figures like Prabhavati Gupta,
who ruled as regent during her son’s minority, show that women could exercise
power in certain circumstances. Additionally, women like Draupadi from the
Mahabharata played important roles within their families, even though their
autonomy was limited by patriarchal structures.
Women’s access
to property was also constrained. According to the Manusmriti, women could not
inherit the family estate. Instead, they were allowed to keep gifts received at
marriage, known as stridhana, but this property was often under the control of
their husbands. In contrast, men had far greater access to wealth and resources
through inheritance, conquest, and labor.
Despite these
restrictions, some religious and philosophical traditions, such as early
Buddhism, recognized the potential for gender equality in certain aspects of
life. The Buddhist sangha, for instance, included both male and female monastic
orders, providing women with an opportunity to renounce worldly life and seek
spiritual enlightenment on more equal terms with men.
In conclusion,
gender differences were an important aspect of early societies, influencing
social roles, family structures, and access to resources. While men typically
held greater power and authority, women played significant roles within their
families and communities. However, their opportunities for autonomy and
influence were often limited by patriarchal norms and practices.
Q9. Discuss the
evidence that suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and
marriage were not universally followed.
Answer:
There is significant evidence to suggest that Brahmanical prescriptions about
kinship and marriage were not universally followed in early Indian societies.
While texts like the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras laid down strict rules
regarding marriage and family life, including practices like patriliny,
endogamy, and the exclusion of women from inheritance, many historical sources
indicate that these norms were not always adhered to.
One example of
deviation from Brahmanical norms is the practice of endogamy among the
Satavahanas. Brahmanical texts advocated for exogamy, where individuals were
expected to marry outside their kin group, particularly outside their gotra
(lineage). However, inscriptions from the Satavahana dynasty, which ruled parts
of western India and the Deccan, show that several rulers married women from
the same gotra. This practice of marrying within the kin group, which runs
counter to Brahmanical ideals, suggests that regional customs and practices
could override Brahmanical prescriptions.
Another example
comes from the story of Draupadi’s marriage to the five Pandava brothers in the
Mahabharata. Polyandry, the practice of a woman having multiple husbands, is
not sanctioned by Brahmanical texts, which typically endorse polygyny. Yet, the
Mahabharata depicts Draupadi’s marriage as a central part of the epic,
suggesting that polyandry may have been an accepted practice among certain
elite groups, even though it was not in line with Brahmanical norms.
The case of the
forest-dwelling communities, such as the nishadas, also illustrates that
Brahmanical norms were not universally followed. These groups lived outside the
settled agrarian society and often had their own customs and social structures
that did not conform to the varna system. The story of Ekalavya, a nishada who
becomes a skilled archer despite being denied formal training by Drona,
highlights the tension between Brahmanical ideals of social hierarchy and the
lived realities of non-Brahmanical communities.
Additionally,
the story of Matanga, a chandala (considered an “untouchable”), in
the Buddhist Jataka tales shows how lower-caste individuals could rise to
positions of spiritual authority, challenging the rigid social boundaries
prescribed by Brahmanical texts. Matanga’s spiritual achievements and moral
superiority, despite his low birth, serve as a critique of the Brahmanical
caste hierarchy.
The evidence
from inscriptions, literary sources, and regional practices indicates that
while Brahmanical texts sought to impose a uniform social order, many
communities and individuals followed their own customs and practices. These
deviations from Brahmanical norms suggest that early Indian society was far
more diverse and complex than the prescriptive texts might lead us to believe.
Map Work
Q10. Compare
the map in this chapter with Map 1 in Chapter 2. List the mahajanapadas and
cities located near the Kuru-Panchala lands.
Answer:
Upon comparing the map in this chapter with Map 1 in Chapter 2, the following
mahajanapadas and cities are located near the Kuru-Panchala lands:
- Kuru: The Kuru kingdom itself is one
of the central mahajanapadas, with its capital at Hastinapura. The Kurus
were one of the most prominent kingdoms during the early historic period. - Panchala: Situated to the southeast of the
Kuru kingdom, Panchala was another important mahajanapada. The capital of
northern Panchala was Ahichchhatra, while southern Panchala had Kampilya
as its capital. - Matsya: Located to the southwest of the
Kuru-Panchala region, Matsya had its capital at Viratnagar. This
mahajanapada played a minor role compared to Kuru and Panchala. - Shurasena: South of the Kuru-Panchala
lands, Shurasena had its capital at Mathura. This region was significant
in both political and cultural terms, especially in connection with
Krishna. - Vatsa: To the southeast