NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History
Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns
Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE-600 CE)
Updated
for 2024-2025 Exams and Syllabus
Answer in 100-150 words
Q1. Discuss the
evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this
different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Answer:
In Early Historic cities, evidence of craft production includes a wide range of
artefacts such as pottery, beads, terracotta figurines, and metal objects made
from copper, bronze, silver, and gold. These were recovered from urban centres
like Pataliputra and Ujjayini. Craft production was often organized through
guilds, known as shrenis, which regulated the quality of goods and organized
their distribution. This is different from Harappan cities, where craft
production was more decentralized. In the Harappan period, evidence of
specialized craft production, such as bead-making workshops at Chanhudaro,
indicates a highly organized economy. However, Harappan craft production was
more localized, and there is little evidence of guilds or similar institutions
that were prevalent in Early Historic cities.
Q2. Describe
the salient features of mahajanapadas.
Answer:
The mahajanapadas were early states in northern India, emerging around the
sixth century BCE. There were 16 prominent mahajanapadas, including Magadha, Koshala,
Kuru, and Gandhara. Each mahajanapada had its capital, often fortified, and was
ruled either by kings or oligarchies called ganas or sanghas. The mahajanapadas
had standing armies, and resources were procured through taxes, tributes, and
raids. Agricultural production, especially in fertile regions like the Ganga
valley, was a significant source of revenue. The rise of these states was also
linked to urbanization, trade, and the use of coinage. Magadha became the most
powerful mahajanapada due to its strategic location, access to resources, and
strong rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatasattu.
Q3. How do
historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Answer:
Historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people using a variety of sources,
including inscriptions, literature, and archaeological evidence. Inscriptions
often mention donations made by common people to religious institutions or
record their occupations, such as carpenters, potters, and weavers. Literary
sources, such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra, provide stories reflecting
the concerns and lives of ordinary people. Archaeological findings, including
houses, pottery, and tools, offer insights into their living conditions. Though
the accounts from inscriptions and literature focus primarily on elite groups,
scholars use these indirect references to understand the everyday life of the
broader population, including peasants, artisans, and traders.
Q4. Compare and
contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced
in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or
differences?
Answer:
The list of gifts given to the Pandyan chief included ivory, fragrant wood,
fans made from deer hair, honey, sandalwood, cardamom, pepper, and animals like
baby tigers and elephants. In contrast, the village of Danguna produced items
such as grains, flowers, milk, and other basic agricultural products. The key
difference is that the items given to the Pandyan chief were luxurious and
rare, indicating the wealth and status of the chief, whereas the products from
Danguna were everyday essentials reflecting the agrarian nature of the village
economy. Both lists highlight the hierarchical nature of society, where
ordinary producers supplied goods to those in power.
Q5. List some
of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Answer:
Epigraphists face several challenges when deciphering inscriptions. One of the
primary problems is the deterioration of inscriptions due to weathering, which
can cause parts of the text to fade or disappear. Inscriptions may also be
incomplete or fragmented, making it difficult to reconstruct the original
message. Another issue is the variability of language and scripts over time, as
some inscriptions were written in local dialects or archaic forms of languages
that are no longer in use. Additionally, interpreting the meaning of
inscriptions can be challenging, as words may have had different connotations
in the past. Epigraphists must also consider the context in which the
inscriptions were made, as they often reflect the perspective of the ruling
elite.
Write a short essay (about 500 words) on the following:
Q6. Discuss the
main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in
the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Answer:
The Mauryan administration, established by Chandragupta Maurya and expanded by
his grandson Ashoka, was one of the most centralized and organized systems in
early Indian history. The empire was divided into provinces, each governed by a
royal prince or governor. The central government, based in the capital
Pataliputra, oversaw all provinces and maintained a uniform system of
administration.
One of the key
features of Mauryan administration was the emphasis on bureaucracy. The empire
had a well-organized network of officials responsible for various aspects of
governance, including revenue collection, law and order, and maintenance of
public infrastructure. Arthashastra, traditionally attributed to Kautilya,
provides detailed accounts of the duties of officials, tax collection, and
measures for internal security. The state also had a standing army, with
divisions for foot soldiers, cavalry, and elephants, to maintain law and order
and protect the empire’s borders.
Trade and
commerce were important elements of the Mauryan economy. The state controlled
key trade routes and imposed taxes on goods. The introduction of punch-marked
coins facilitated trade and economic transactions. The Mauryas also encouraged
agriculture, and land revenue was a major source of income. Irrigation systems
were maintained, and peasants were required to pay a portion of their produce
as tax.
Ashoka’s
administration reflected the same structure but with a greater emphasis on
dhamma, a moral code based on non-violence, tolerance, and respect for all
living beings. Ashoka’s inscriptions, particularly his edicts, reveal how he
sought to spread the principles of dhamma throughout the empire. These
inscriptions were placed on pillars and rocks in various regions, and they
conveyed messages about ethical conduct, the welfare of his subjects, and his
policy of religious tolerance. The inscriptions also mention officers called
dhamma mahamattas, appointed to oversee the implementation of dhamma and ensure
the well-being of the people.
Elements of
Mauryan administration, such as the focus on bureaucracy, law and order, and
welfare, are clearly reflected in Ashoka’s inscriptions. The uniformity of
administrative practices across the empire is evident from the inscriptions
found in different parts of the subcontinent, from Afghanistan to Karnataka.
Ashoka’s commitment to moral governance and the dissemination of his ethical
principles through inscriptions mark a significant departure from the
traditional focus on power and conquest seen in earlier regimes.
Q7. This is a
statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century,
D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the
Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.
Answer:
D.C. Sircar’s statement highlights the significance of inscriptions as a source
of historical knowledge. Inscriptions provide detailed accounts of various
aspects of life, culture, and activities in ancient India, from the political
ambitions of kings to the religious donations of common people.
Inscriptions
were often commissioned by rulers to commemorate their achievements, issue
decrees, and record donations to religious institutions. For example, the
inscriptions of Ashoka provide valuable insights into the moral and ethical
principles that he promoted through dhamma. These inscriptions also reflect the
administrative structure of the Mauryan Empire, with references to the
officials and provinces that formed part of the centralized bureaucracy.
Religious and
cultural life is also well-documented in inscriptions. Numerous inscriptions
from Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu sites record donations made by kings,
merchants, and ordinary citizens to monasteries and temples. These inscriptions
not only provide information about religious practices but also offer clues
about the social and economic status of the donors. For instance, the guilds or
shrenis mentioned in some inscriptions indicate the role of merchants and
craftspersons in supporting religious institutions.
Inscriptions
also reflect the economic activities of the time. Records of land grants,
especially from the Gupta period, provide evidence of the agrarian economy and
the transfer of land from the state to individuals or religious institutions.
These inscriptions often mention the size of the land, the rights of the
donees, and the taxes levied on the produce.
However, while
inscriptions cover a wide range of subjects, they are not exhaustive. Most
inscriptions reflect the concerns of the elite, particularly kings and
religious institutions, and rarely provide direct evidence of the lives of
ordinary people. Nevertheless, by carefully analyzing the content and context
of inscriptions, historians can gain valuable insights into the political,
economic, religious, and cultural life of ancient India.
Q8. Discuss the
notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
Answer:
The post-Mauryan period (circa 200 BCE to 300 CE) witnessed the emergence of
new forms of kingship, influenced by regional variations, social developments,
and interactions with foreign powers such as the Indo-Greeks, Shakas, and
Kushanas. This era was marked by a shift in the nature of kingship, with rulers
adopting divine and militaristic attributes to legitimize their authority.
One of the most
significant features of post-Mauryan kingship was the idea of divine kingship.
The Kushanas, who ruled over vast territories from Central Asia to
north-western India, projected themselves as divine rulers. Kushana kings such
as Kanishka took the title “devaputra,” meaning “son of
god,” which was inspired by similar notions in Chinese imperial
traditions. The statues and coins of Kushana rulers, found in shrines, suggest
that they were considered semi-divine, and their rule was seen as divinely
ordained.
Another feature
of post-Mauryan kingship was the emphasis on military prowess. Rulers like the
Satavahanas and Shakas portrayed themselves as conquerors and protectors of
their realms. They maintained standing armies and engaged in territorial
expansion to enhance their power and prestige. The inscriptions of Satavahana
rulers frequently mention their victories over rival kings, reflecting the
importance of military conquests in establishing their legitimacy. These rulers
also built fortifications and constructed strategic military outposts to secure
their territories.
In contrast to
the Mauryan period, where central authority was highly structured, post-Mauryan
kingship was often decentralized. Many regional dynasties, such as the Shakas
and Satavahanas, emerged, each exercising control over specific areas. These
dynasties often derived legitimacy from their association with religious
institutions. For example, the Satavahanas supported Brahmanical rituals and
performed Vedic sacrifices to assert their authority. Similarly, some rulers
made donations to Buddhist and Jaina monasteries to gain support from religious
communities.
One significant
development in the post-Mauryan period was the increasing importance of land
grants. Rulers began to make land grants to Brahmanas, monasteries, and other
institutions, often exempting the recipients from paying taxes. These land
grants were recorded in inscriptions, providing evidence of the rulers’ efforts
to consolidate their power by rewarding loyal subjects and religious
institutions. The grants also contributed to the emergence of new rural elites,
such as the Brahmanas, who played a key role in local administration.
Post-Mauryan
kingship also reflected the influence of foreign cultural traditions. The Indo-Greeks,
Shakas, and Kushanas introduced Hellenistic and Central Asian elements into
Indian political and cultural life. The use of coinage with Greek and Bactrian
influences, the adoption of Greek-style sculptures, and the portrayal of kings
as divine figures were some of the ways in which foreign influences shaped the
notion of kingship during this period.
In conclusion,
post-Mauryan kingship was characterized by a combination of divine authority,
military power, and religious patronage. These rulers adapted to changing
social and political circumstances, interacting with foreign powers, and
adopting new forms of legitimacy to assert their dominance.
Q9. To what
extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?
Answer:
The period under consideration, roughly from the sixth century BCE to the early
centuries CE, witnessed significant changes in agricultural practices,
particularly in northern India and parts of the Deccan. These transformations
were driven by technological innovations, increased urbanization, and the
growing demands of emerging states and empires.
One of the most
important developments in agriculture during this period was the widespread use
of the iron-tipped plough. Iron ploughshares were particularly effective in
regions with alluvial soils, such as the Ganga valley. The use of iron tools
allowed farmers to till larger areas of land more efficiently, leading to
higher crop yields. This technological advancement contributed to the expansion
of agriculture in fertile river valleys and facilitated the rise of powerful
states like Magadha, which relied heavily on agricultural surplus to sustain
its armies and bureaucracy.
Another
significant transformation was the introduction of paddy transplantation in
some regions, particularly in the Ganga valley. Paddy transplantation involves
growing rice seedlings in nurseries and then transplanting them into flooded
fields. This method ensures a higher survival rate for the plants and results in
increased productivity. Although this technique required labor-intensive work,
it significantly boosted rice production, which became a staple crop in many
parts of northern India. Paddy cultivation also necessitated the development of
irrigation systems, as rice requires abundant water to grow.
The spread of
irrigation technologies was another major factor in the transformation of
agriculture. Farmers in arid and semi-arid regions, such as parts of Rajasthan
and Gujarat, used wells, tanks, and reservoirs to store and manage water for
agricultural purposes. Some rulers, such as Rudradaman of the Shaka dynasty,
are known to have sponsored the construction of large irrigation works,
including the repair of the Sudarshana Lake in Gujarat. The availability of irrigation
allowed farmers to cultivate multiple crops per year, thereby increasing
agricultural productivity.
In addition to
these technological and infrastructural changes, the period also saw the
emergence of new patterns of land ownership and cultivation. The use of land
grants became more widespread, with rulers and local elites donating land to
religious institutions and Brahmanas. These grants often came with exemptions
from taxes, which encouraged the recipients to invest in agricultural
improvements. The land grant system also contributed to the growth of a rural
elite, who controlled large estates and had the resources to invest in
agricultural innovations.
However, it is
important to note that the adoption of new agricultural techniques was not uniform
across the subcontinent. In some regions, such as the dry plains of Punjab and
the hilly tracts of central and northeastern India, traditional methods of hoe
cultivation continued to be practiced. These areas did not adopt the iron
plough until much later, and their agricultural productivity remained
relatively low compared to the more fertile regions of the Ganga and Kaveri
valleys.
In conclusion,
agricultural practices were transformed during this period through the
introduction of new technologies such as the iron plough and paddy
transplantation, the development of irrigation systems, and changes in land
ownership patterns. These innovations led to increased agricultural
productivity, which in turn supported the growth of urban centers and powerful
states.
Map Work
Q10. Compare
Maps 1 and 2, and list the mahajanapadas that might have been included in the
Mauryan Empire. Are any Asokan inscriptions found in these areas?
Answer:
Upon comparing Maps 1 and 2, several mahajanapadas appear to have been included
within the boundaries of the Mauryan Empire. These mahajanapadas include:
- Magadha: This was the core of the Mauryan
Empire and the capital cities of Rajagaha (Rajgir) and Pataliputra (Patna)
were located here. - Koshala: To the north of Magadha, this
was another important region that likely became part of the Mauryan
Empire. - Avanti: Located in the western part of
India, with Ujjayini as its capital, Avanti was an important region during
the Mauryan period. - Kuru: Located near present-day Delhi,
Kuru was another significant mahajanapada that might have been part of the
Mauryan Empire.
Asokan
inscriptions have been found in many of these areas, particularly in regions
such as Magadha, Koshala, and Avanti. For example, inscriptions have been found
at sites like Ujjayini (in Avanti) and Pataliputra (in Magadha). These
inscriptions primarily proclaim Ashoka’s policies of dhamma and his efforts to
promote moral and ethical behavior across the empire.
Project (any one)
Q11. Collect
newspapers for one month. Cut and paste all the statements made by government
officials about public works. Note what the reports say about the resources
required for such projects, how the resources are mobilized, and the objective
of the project. Who issues these statements, and how and why are they
communicated? Compare and contrast these with the evidence from inscriptions
discussed in this chapter. What are the similarities and differences that you
notice?
Q12. Collect
five different kinds of currency notes and coins in circulation today. For each
one of these, describe what you see on the obverse and the reverse (the front
and the back). Prepare a report on the common features as well as the
differences in terms of pictures, scripts, and languages, size, shape, and any
other element that you find significant. Compare these with the coins shown in
this chapter, discussing the materials used, the techniques of minting, the
visual symbols and their significance, and the possible functions that coins
may have had.