Updated for 2024-2025 Exams and Syllabus 

Answer in 100-150 words

1. List the items of food available
   to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided
   these.

Answer.

The Harappans ate a variety of food, including wheat, barley, lentils,
chickpeas, sesame, millets (from Gujarat), and rice (rarely found). They also
consumed animal products like cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, fish, and
fowl. The food was provided by farmers who cultivated grains and raised
animals, and by fishing and hunting communities who provided meat from wild
species such as boar, deer, and fish.

2. How do archaeologists trace socio-economic
   differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they
   notice?

Answer.

Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences through burials, artefacts,
and the presence of luxury items. Some graves had elaborate brick structures
and precious items like copper mirrors, which could indicate higher status.
They also differentiate between utilitarian items like pottery and luxurious
items like faience pots. These items were distributed unevenly across sites,
with luxury objects mostly found in larger cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa,
suggesting social stratification.

3. Would you agree that the drainage
   system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your
   answer.

Answer.

Yes, the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates advanced town
planning. The streets were laid out in a grid pattern, and each house had a
drainage connection leading to the street drains. These drains were made of
brick and were regularly maintained with cesspits to collect waste. This level
of planning and coordination suggests a well-organized urban management system.

4. List the materials used to make
   beads in the Harappan civilisation. Describe the process by which any one
   kind of bead was made.

Answer. 

Beads were made from materials like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz,
steatite, copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, and terracotta. To make
carnelian beads, raw materials were first chipped into rough shapes, flaked
into the final form, and then fired to achieve the desired red color. The beads
were then ground, polished, and drilled using specialized tools found in craft
production sites like Chanhudaro.

5. Look at Fig. 1.30 and describe
   what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it?
   Are there any artefacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the
   skeleton?

Answer.

The body in Fig. 1.30 is placed in a burial pit. Various objects such as
pottery and ornaments are placed near the body, which indicates some ritual
significance or a belief in the afterlife. Artefacts such as jewellery found on
the body do not clearly indicate its sex, as both men and women were found with
ornaments in Harappan burials.

6. Describe some of the distinctive features of
Mohenjodaro.

Mohenjodaro, one of the largest and most prominent cities of the Harappan
civilization, is known for its advanced urban planning and distinctive
architectural features. Situated on the banks of the Indus River in present-day
Pakistan, the city provides a fascinating glimpse into life during the peak of
the Indus Valley Civilization around 2600-1900 BCE.

One of the most striking features of Mohenjodaro is its well-planned layout.
The city was divided into two main areas: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The
Citadel, which was elevated on a massive mud-brick platform, was likely the
center of political and ceremonial activities. It contained large public
buildings, including the famous Great Bath, a rectangular tank with steps
leading down from both sides. This structure, constructed with watertight
bricks, is believed to have been used for ritual bathing, highlighting the
importance of water in Harappan culture. The Great Bath is a unique feature of
the city and reflects the advanced engineering skills of the Harappan people.

The Lower Town, which was much larger than the Citadel, housed residential
buildings and was laid out in a grid pattern. The streets intersected at right
angles, forming rectangular blocks. This kind of urban planning was ahead of
its time, suggesting that the city’s construction was pre-planned, possibly
under centralized authority. The streets were lined with brick houses, some of
which were two stories high. Each house had a courtyard, which served as the
center of domestic activities. The houses also had private wells and bathrooms,
showcasing the Harappans’ concern for cleanliness and hygiene.

Mohenjodaro is also known for its sophisticated drainage system, which is
considered one of the most advanced in the ancient world. Every house was
connected to street drains, which were covered with bricks or stone slabs and
regularly cleaned. These drains carried waste water out of the city, preventing
flooding and maintaining sanitary conditions. This level of attention to public
infrastructure highlights the importance of organized city management in Harappan
society.

Another distinctive feature of Mohenjodaro is its use of standardized
bricks, which were used not only in the city but throughout the entire Harappan
civilization. The bricks were of uniform size, following a standard ratio of
length to breadth to height (4:2:1), which facilitated construction and may
indicate a centralized production system.

In addition to its architectural and infrastructural achievements,
Mohenjodaro was a center for trade and craft production. The city contained
workshops for bead-making, pottery, and metalworking, with evidence of
long-distance trade routes connecting it to Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and
other parts of the Indian subcontinent. The discovery of seals, weights, and
other trade-related artefacts indicates that Mohenjodaro was an important hub
in the Harappan trading network.

In summary, Mohenjodaro stands out as one of the most well-preserved and
advanced cities of the Harappan civilization. Its urban planning, architectural
innovations, sophisticated drainage system, and role in trade reflect a highly
organized and prosperous society. Despite being over 4,000 years old, the city
continues to offer valuable insights into the achievements of the ancient
Harappans.

7. List the raw materials required for craft
production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been
obtained.

The Harappan civilization was known for its extensive craft production,
which utilized a wide variety of raw materials. These materials were sourced
both locally and through long-distance trade, reflecting the civilization’s
advanced technological capabilities and extensive trade networks.

Locally sourced materials:

1. Clay: Used extensively for making pottery,
   bricks, and terracotta figurines. Harappan cities like Mohenjodaro and
   Harappa had abundant access to clay from the nearby riverbeds of the Indus
   and Saraswati rivers. The clay was shaped and then baked in kilns to produce
   durable ceramic items.
2. Stone (Steatite and others): Steatite, a soft
   stone, was commonly used to make seals, beads, and small figurines.
   Steatite was found in regions such as Baluchistan and northern Rajasthan,
   and it was shaped into various objects through a process of grinding,
   polishing, and sometimes firing. Other stones, like carnelian, jasper, and
   agate, were used to make beads.

Imported materials:

1. Copper: Copper was one of the primary metals
   used in Harappan craft production, especially for making tools, weapons,
   and ornaments. The primary sources of copper were likely the Khetri mines
   in Rajasthan and the Baluchistan region. There is also evidence that
   copper may have been imported from Oman, as chemical analysis of copper
   artefacts from Harappan sites shows similarities to Omani copper.
2. Gold: Gold was a rare and precious material
   used to make jewellery and luxury items. The Harappans likely obtained
   gold from the southern parts of India, particularly from the Kolar gold
   fields. Gold artefacts have been found in the form of beads, ornaments,
   and small figurines in many Harappan sites.
3. Lapis lazuli: A semi-precious blue stone,
   lapis lazuli was highly valued by the Harappans. It was sourced from mines
   in the Badakhshan region of present-day Afghanistan. Lapis lazuli was used
   to make beads, inlay work, and possibly traded with distant regions,
   including Mesopotamia.
4. Shell: Shell was used to make bangles, inlay
   work, and other decorative items. The Harappans obtained shells from
   coastal areas, particularly from Gujarat (near sites like Nageshwar and
   Balakot). Shell-cutting workshops have been found in these coastal
   regions, indicating that shell processing was an important craft.
5. Carnelian: Carnelian, a reddish-orange stone,
   was commonly used to make beads. It was sourced from the Ratanpur area in
   Gujarat and was highly prized for its deep color. The beads were shaped,
   drilled, and polished to create intricate jewellery.
6. Faience: Faience, a material made from ground
   quartz, was used to make beads, small figurines, and miniature pots. The
   faience production process involved mixing ground quartz with colorants
   and firing it to produce a glassy surface. Faience was considered a luxury
   material due to the complexity of its production.
7. Timber: Timber was used for building
   construction and for making tools. The Harappans likely sourced timber
   from nearby forests, particularly in the Himalayan foothills and Punjab
   regions. Cedar and other durable woods were probably used for structural
   purposes.

Procurement methods: The Harappans employed a
variety of strategies to obtain these raw materials. Local materials such as
clay and stone were procured from nearby regions, often from specialized craft
centers located near the raw material sources. For example, sites like
Nageshwar and Balakot were located near shell resources, and Chanhudaro was a
hub for bead-making.

Long-distance trade played a crucial role in obtaining materials that were
not locally available. The Harappans established trade routes that extended to
Mesopotamia, Oman, and Central Asia. Harappan seals, weights, and beads have
been found in Mesopotamian cities, indicating a well-established trade network.
The discovery of Harappan-style artefacts in Oman and Bahrain suggests maritime
trade along the Arabian Sea.

In conclusion, the Harappan civilization’s craft production relied on a
diverse range of raw materials, many of which were obtained through an
extensive network of trade and local procurement. The civilization’s ability to
source, process, and trade these materials was a key factor in its economic
success.

8. Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the
past.

Archaeologists reconstruct the past by examining material remains left
behind by ancient civilizations. These remains include artefacts, architecture,
tools, and organic materials such as seeds or bones. The reconstruction process
involves multiple steps, including excavation, analysis, classification,
dating, and interpretation.

1. Excavation: The first step in reconstructing
the past is excavating archaeological sites, where archaeologists carefully
remove layers of earth to uncover material evidence. Excavation is conducted
with precision to ensure that the artefacts are preserved in their original
context. The stratigraphy of the site—different layers of earth—helps
archaeologists understand the chronological sequence of occupation. Lower
layers represent earlier periods, while upper layers reflect later ones. The
systematic excavation and recording of these layers allow archaeologists to build
a timeline of the site’s history.

2. Analysis of artefacts: Once artefacts are
recovered, archaeologists analyze them to determine their function and
significance. Artefacts can include pottery, tools, ornaments, seals, and
inscriptions. Each of these objects provides clues about the daily lives,
economic activities, and cultural practices of the people who used them. For
example, pottery can reveal information about cooking techniques, trade, and
artistic styles. Seals can offer insights into trade networks and
administrative systems.

3. Dating techniques: Archaeologists use various
dating methods to establish the age of artefacts and sites. One of the most
common techniques is carbon-14 (radiocarbon) dating, which measures the decay
of organic materials such as wood, bones, or seeds. This method is particularly
useful for dating items that are thousands of years old. Other dating methods
include thermoluminescence, which is used to date ceramics, and
dendrochronology, the study of tree rings to determine the age of timber.

4. Contextual clues: The context in which
artefacts are found plays a critical role in reconstructing the past. For
instance, artefacts found in a burial context, such as pottery or jewellery,
might indicate ritual or funerary practices. Similarly, items found in a
domestic setting, such as cooking pots or grinding stones, provide evidence of
daily life. The location of artefacts within a site can also reveal social
structures, with wealthier individuals possibly buried with more elaborate
goods than common people.

5. Interdisciplinary approaches: Archaeologists
often collaborate with specialists from other fields, such as geology, biology,
and chemistry, to better understand ancient environments and human activities.
For example, paleoethnobotanists study ancient plant remains to learn about
agricultural practices, while zooarchaeologists examine animal bones to
reconstruct diets and hunting patterns. Advances in DNA analysis have allowed
archaeologists to study human remains and trace population movements, offering
insights into genetic heritage and migrations.

6. Interpretation and comparison: Archaeologists
interpret the findings by comparing them to known examples from other sites and
periods. They use analogies from present-day tools and practices to infer the
use of ancient objects. For example, a quern found at an archaeological site
may resemble a modern grinding stone used to process grains. This comparative
approach helps archaeologists draw conclusions about ancient technologies,
economies, and social systems.

7. Reconstructing social and political systems:
By examining the distribution of artefacts and architectural features within a
site, archaeologists can infer social hierarchies and political structures. In
cities like Mohenjodaro, the presence of large public buildings such as the
Great Bath suggests centralized authority and organized public works. Artefacts
like seals and weights indicate systems of administration and trade regulation.

In conclusion, archaeologists use a combination of techniques and methods to
reconstruct the past. Through careful excavation, analysis, and interpretation
of artefacts, they can build a picture of ancient civilizations, offering
insights into their social structures, economies, and daily lives.

9. Discuss the functions that may have been
performed by rulers in Harappan society.

The exact role of rulers in Harappan society is still a subject of debate
among archaeologists. Unlike contemporary civilizations in Mesopotamia or
Egypt, the Harappan civilization has not yielded any clear evidence of kings,
palaces, or centralized monuments that directly indicate the presence of
powerful rulers. However, certain artefacts and architectural features suggest
that some form of leadership or governing authority existed.

1. Urban planning and management: The most
compelling evidence of a governing authority in Harappan society comes from the
sophisticated urban planning seen in cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and
Dholavira. The uniformity in city layouts, brick sizes, and drainage systems
across these sites suggests centralized control. The cities were built
following a grid pattern, with well-organized streets, residential areas, and
public buildings. The level of coordination required for such planning implies
the existence of a ruling body responsible for organizing labor and overseeing
construction projects.

2. Public works: The construction of large-scale
public works, such as the Great Bath in Mohenjodaro or the reservoirs at
Dholavira, indicates the involvement of rulers or administrators. These
structures required considerable resources and labor, which would have been
difficult to mobilize without centralized authority. The rulers may have been
responsible for ensuring that the necessary materials and manpower were
available to complete these projects. The uniformity of brick sizes and the
standardization of weights used in trade further suggest that rulers
implemented and enforced regulations across the civilization.

3. Trade and economic control: Harappan society
was deeply involved in trade, both within the Indian subcontinent and with
distant regions such as Mesopotamia, Oman, and Central Asia. The discovery of
standardized seals, weights, and trade goods indicates that the rulers may have
played a key role in regulating trade and commerce. The presence of craft
production centers, like those found in Chanhudaro and Lothal, suggests that
rulers oversaw the production and distribution of goods, ensuring that the
economy functioned smoothly. They may have also controlled long-distance trade
routes, facilitating the exchange of materials like lapis lazuli, copper, and
carnelian.

4. Law and order: The presence of standardized
weights and measures across the Harappan civilization suggests that the rulers
were responsible for maintaining law and order, especially in matters of trade.
The seals found at various sites likely served as official markers of
ownership, ensuring that goods were not tampered with during transit. The
uniformity of these seals across the civilization suggests that they were
issued or approved by a central authority.

5. Religious and ceremonial roles: While there
is limited direct evidence of religious practices in Harappan society, the
presence of large public structures like the Great Bath suggests that the
rulers may have played a role in organizing religious or ceremonial events. The
Great Bath, with its elaborate design and central location, may have been used
for ritual purification, and it is possible that the rulers oversaw such
activities. Additionally, some scholars have suggested that the so-called
“priest-king” statue found at Mohenjodaro indicates a fusion of
religious and political authority, though this interpretation remains debated.

6. Military defense: Some Harappan cities, such
as Dholavira, were fortified with massive walls, indicating concerns about
defense and security. The rulers may have been responsible for organizing the
defense of the city, especially in times of conflict. However, there is little
evidence of warfare or militarism in the Harappan civilization, and some
scholars believe that the society was relatively peaceful.

7. Social organization: The discovery of social
differentiation in Harappan burials and artefacts suggests that rulers may have
been responsible for maintaining social order. Some burials contained elaborate
grave goods, while others were more modest, indicating differences in wealth
and status. The rulers may have enforced social hierarchies and ensured that
resources were distributed according to status.

In conclusion, while the exact nature of rulership in the Harappan
civilization remains unclear, the evidence suggests that rulers or governing
bodies were responsible for urban planning, public works, trade regulation, and
possibly religious and ceremonial activities. The centralized control implied
by the uniformity of Harappan cities points to a well-organized society with
rulers who played a key role in its administration.

Map Work

10. On Map 1, use a pencil to circle
    sites where evidence of agriculture has been recovered. Mark an X against
    sites where there is evidence of craft production and R against sites
    where raw materials were found.

Project (any one)

11. Find out if there are any museums
    in your town. Visit one of them and write a report on any ten items,
    describing how old they are, where they were found, and why you think they
    are on display.
12. Collect illustrations of ten
    things made of stone, metal, and clay produced and used at present.
    Compare these with the pictures of the Harappan civilisation in this
    chapter, and discuss the similarities and differences that you find.