NCERT Solutions Class 12 History
Chapter 7: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara
(c. fourteenth to sixteenth centuries)
Updated
Syllabus for 2024-2025 Exams
Q. No. 1
Question: What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi
over the last two centuries? In what way do you think they would have
complemented the information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha temple?
(100-150 words)
Answer:
The ruins of Hampi have been studied using a variety of methods over the last
two centuries. In 1800, Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian,
conducted the first survey of the site. Later, in 1856, photography played an
essential role in documenting the monuments. Epigraphists began collecting
inscriptions from the 1830s, which helped in reconstructing the history of
Vijayanagara. Archaeologists have conducted extensive excavations to uncover
material remains, such as temples, roads, and fortifications.
These studies
complemented the oral traditions preserved by the priests of the Virupaksha
temple, who shared stories about Hampi and its religious significance.
Together, these sources helped build a more comprehensive understanding of the
history of Vijayanagara.
Q. No. 2
Question: How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met? (100-150
words)
Answer:
The water requirements of Vijayanagara were met through a combination of
natural features and man-made innovations. The city was located in a natural
basin formed by the Tungabhadra River, and the surrounding granite hills helped
in channeling water to the city. Elaborate systems of reservoirs and canals
were built to store and distribute water. One of the largest tanks, known as
the Kamalapuram tank, was constructed to store rainwater and irrigate nearby
fields. The Hiriya canal was another prominent waterwork that drew water from a
dam across the Tungabhadra River and irrigated the agricultural areas of the
city.
These water
management systems were crucial for sustaining agriculture and supporting the
large population of the city.
Q. No. 3
Question: What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of
enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city? (100-150
words)
Answer:
Enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of Vijayanagara had
several advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage was protection during
times of siege. By fortifying the agricultural tracts, the rulers ensured that
they had access to food and resources, which would be crucial during prolonged
conflicts. This strategy also helped to maintain a stable food supply for the
city’s population and ensured the prosperity of the city’s economy.
However, the
disadvantages included the significant expense of constructing and maintaining
such extensive fortifications. Enclosing vast areas of land required
large-scale resources and manpower, making it an expensive endeavor.
Additionally, it may have made the city more vulnerable in some ways, as a
larger area meant more territory to defend against invaders.
Q. No. 4
Question: What do you think was the significance of the rituals
associated with the mahanavami dibba? (100-150 words)
Answer:
The rituals associated with the mahanavami dibba, particularly during the Mahanavami
festival, were significant for displaying the power and prestige of the
Vijayanagara kings. The platform was the site of grand ceremonies, where the
king would inspect his armies and receive tribute from his nayakas and other
subordinates. These rituals reinforced the king’s authority and showcased his
military strength and political dominance.
The Mahanavami
festival also included various cultural performances, such as dances, wrestling
matches, and processions of elephants and horses, symbolizing royal grandeur.
The elaborate ceremonies emphasized the divine legitimacy of the king, as the
festivities included the worship of deities and sacrifices, further
strengthening the connection between the ruler and the divine.
Q. No. 5
Question: Fig. 7.33 is an illustration of another pillar from the
Virupaksha temple. Do you notice any floral motifs? What are the animals shown?
Why do you think they are depicted? Describe the human figures shown. (100-150
words)
Answer:
The pillar from the Virupaksha temple in Fig. 7.33 displays intricate floral
motifs, symbolizing the abundance of nature and beauty in the divine realm. The
animals depicted on the pillar include elephants, horses, and lions, which
represent power, strength, and royal authority. These animals were often
associated with kingship and divine protection, underscoring the ruler’s role
as both a warrior and a protector of the people.
The human
figures carved on the pillar are likely warriors, dancers, or deities,
reflecting the cultural and religious life of the city. The figures might
depict scenes from royal processions or temple rituals, showing the important
relationship between the king, the divine, and the people.
Q. No. 6
Question: Discuss whether the term “royal centre” is an
appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used. (250-300
words)
Answer:
The term “royal centre” is an appropriate description for the part of
Vijayanagara where the king and his court resided and where administrative and
ceremonial activities took place. This area was located in the southwestern
part of the city and included several important buildings, such as palaces,
audience halls, and the mahanavami dibba. The architecture and layout of the
royal centre reflect its political and ceremonial importance.
The structures
within the royal centre, such as the audience halls and the mahanavami dibba,
were used for royal ceremonies, meetings with nobles, and receiving foreign
dignitaries. These spaces emphasized the king’s authority and his connection to
the divine. The royal centre also included temples, further reinforcing the
idea that the king’s power was divinely ordained.
However, while
the term “royal centre” is fitting, it does not fully capture the
complexity of the area. In addition to administrative functions, the royal
centre had religious and cultural significance. Temples within the area, such
as the Hazara Rama temple, were reserved for the royal family, and religious
festivals and rituals were an important aspect of courtly life. Additionally,
the presence of gardens and waterworks suggests that the royal centre also
served as a place of leisure and luxury for the elite.
In conclusion,
while the term “royal centre” is accurate in describing the political
and administrative significance of this part of the city, it should also be
recognized as a religious and cultural hub that played a key role in the life
of the Vijayanagara elite.
Q. No. 7
Question: What does the architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal
and elephant stables tell us about the rulers who commissioned them? (250-300
words)
Answer:
The architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and the elephant stables
reveals several aspects of the rulers of Vijayanagara. These structures reflect
the wealth, power, and sophistication of the empire, as well as the rulers’
desire to incorporate a blend of architectural styles that signaled their
cosmopolitan outlook.
The Lotus
Mahal, with its graceful arches and elegant design, shows the influence of
Indo-Islamic architectural traditions. The structure’s blend of Hindu and
Islamic elements suggests that the Vijayanagara rulers were open to cultural
exchanges and borrowed architectural techniques from neighboring Sultanates.
This openness to different styles reflects the rulers’ ambition to create a
unique imperial identity that incorporated elements from various traditions.
The elephant
stables, on the other hand, highlight the rulers’ military strength and their
need to maintain a large cavalry. The stables were designed to house royal
elephants, which were symbols of power and were used in warfare and grand
processions. The large, impressive structure of the stables suggests the
importance of elephants in projecting the might of the Vijayanagara kings.
Overall, the
architecture of these buildings indicates that the Vijayanagara rulers were not
only focused on military and political power but also on cultural and artistic
achievements. The blend of different architectural styles and the scale of the
structures reflect their ambition to be seen as powerful, cultured, and
sophisticated rulers of a vast empire.
Q. No. 8
Question: What are the architectural traditions that inspired the
architects of Vijayanagara? How did they transform these traditions? (250-300
words)
Answer:
The architects of Vijayanagara drew inspiration from several architectural
traditions, including the earlier temple-building styles of the Cholas,
Hoysalas, and Pallavas. These dynasties had established a strong tradition of
temple architecture in South India, characterized by grand gopurams (temple
gateways), intricate carvings, and large mandapas (pillared halls). The
Vijayanagara rulers adopted and adapted these features, elevating them to new
heights.
One of the key
innovations in Vijayanagara architecture was the scale of the structures. The
raya gopurams, or royal gateways, were significantly larger than the central
shrines and became a dominant feature of temple complexes. These towering
gateways, such as those at the Virupaksha and Vitthala temples, were not only
impressive architectural feats but also symbols of the power and authority of
the Vijayanagara kings.
The architects
of Vijayanagara also incorporated Indo-Islamic elements into their designs,
reflecting the cultural interactions between the Vijayanagara Empire and the neighboring
Sultanates. This is evident in structures like the Lotus Mahal and the elephant
stables, which feature arches and domes characteristic of Islamic architecture.
By blending these styles, the Vijayanagara architects created a unique
architectural identity that reflected the empire’s diverse influences.
In addition to
religious and royal buildings, the architects of Vijayanagara paid attention to
urban planning. The city’s layout, with its fortifications, roads, and
waterworks, demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of urban development and
resource management.
Overall, the
architects of Vijayanagara transformed earlier traditions by increasing the
scale of the structures, incorporating new stylistic elements, and focusing on
the symbolic power of architecture to reflect the empire’s political and
cultural ambitions.
Q. No. 9
Question: What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of
Vijayanagara can you cull from the various descriptions in the chapter?
(250-300 words)
Answer:
The lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can be inferred from the
various descriptions of the city’s markets, streets, and residential areas, as
provided by foreign travelers like Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz. These
accounts, combined with archaeological evidence, offer insights into the
economic, social, and cultural aspects of life in the city.
Vijayanagara
was a bustling urban center with vibrant markets where a wide variety of goods
were traded, including spices, textiles, precious stones, and agricultural
produce. Paes described the city’s bazaars as being full of merchants selling
rubies, diamonds, pearls, and other luxury items, suggesting that the city had
a prosperous trading economy. The abundance of food items, including grains,
fruits, and meat, indicates that the city was well-supplied and that its
residents had access to a variety of goods.
The houses of
the ordinary people, according to Barbosa, were thatched but well-built and
arranged in long streets according to occupation. This suggests a well-organized
urban layout, where people lived in neighborhoods based on their trades or
professions. The presence of temples and small shrines throughout the city
indicates that religious practices were an important part of daily life for the
common people.
However, the
lives of ordinary people were not entirely focused on prosperity. The
construction of large buildings, such as temples and palaces, required
significant labor, and it is likely that many of the city’s inhabitants were
involved in construction work. While the grandeur of Vijayanagara’s
architecture reflects the wealth of the elite, the labor of ordinary people
played a crucial role in building and maintaining the city.
Map Work: Q. No. 10
Question: On an outline map of the world, mark approximately Italy,
Portugal, Iran, and Russia. Trace the routes the travelers mentioned on p.176
would have taken to reach Vijayanagara.
Answer:
For this map work, mark the following countries:
- Italy – to represent the journey of the
Italian traveler Nicolo de Conti. - Portugal – for the Portuguese travelers
Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz. - Iran – to indicate the travels of
Abdur Razzaq. - Russia – for the Russian merchant
Afanasii Nikitin.
Use trade
routes from Europe and Asia to trace how these travelers might have arrived in
India, particularly by sea or overland routes passing through the Middle East.
Project:
Q. No. 11
Question: Find out more about any one of the major cities which
flourished in the subcontinent during c. fourteenth-seventeenth centuries.
Describe the architecture of the city. Are there any features to suggest that
these were political centers? Are there buildings that were ritually
significant? Is there an area for commercial activities? What are the features
that distinguish the urban layout from that of surrounding areas?
Answer:
For this project, you would need to research a city like Delhi, Ahmedabad, or
Agra, focusing on its architecture, political significance, religious
buildings, and areas dedicated to trade and commerce. Compare how the city’s
layout reflects its importance as a political and economic hub.
Q. No. 12
Question: Visit a religious building in your neighborhood. Describe,
with sketches, its roof, pillars, and arches if any, corridors, passages,
halls, entrance, water supply, etc. Compare these features with those of the
Virupaksha temple. Describe what each part of the building is used for. Find
out about its history.
Answer:
For this project, visit a local religious building and carefully document its
architectural features. Compare these with the Virupaksha temple, particularly
in terms of layout and function. Research the building’s history to understand
its cultural and religious significance.