NCERT Solutions Class 12 History
Chapter 6: Bhakti-Sufi Traditions
Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. eighth to eighteenth
centuries)
Updated
Syllabus for 2024-2025 Exams
Q. No. 1
Question: Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration
of cults. (100-150 words)
Answer:
The integration of cults refers to the merging of local and regional deities
with broader religious traditions. Historians suggest that this process
occurred through two methods: the dissemination of Brahmanical ideas and the
acceptance and adaptation of local practices. For instance, the deity Jagannatha
in Puri, originally a local god worshipped in tribal traditions, was identified
as a form of Vishnu by the 12th century. Similarly, local goddesses worshipped
in simple stone forms were incorporated into the Brahmanical framework by
identifying them as forms of Parvati or Lakshmi. This integration shows how
“great” and “little” traditions interacted and influenced each other.
Q. No. 2
Question: To what extent do you think the architecture of mosques in the
subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions?
(100-150 words)
Answer:
Mosque architecture in the subcontinent demonstrates a blend of universal
Islamic principles and local traditions. Universally, mosques are oriented
towards Mecca, with features such as the mihrab and minbar being common across
all mosques. However, local architectural elements were incorporated depending
on the region. For example, mosques in Kerala often feature shikhara-like
roofs, a style common in Hindu temples, while others, like the Atiya mosque in
Bangladesh, use locally available materials such as brick. This combination of
universal religious principles with regional styles reflects the adaptability
of Islamic architecture to local cultural contexts.
Q. No. 3
Question: What were the similarities and differences between the
be-shari‘a and ba-shari‘a sufi traditions? (100-150 words)
Answer:
Both be-shari‘a and ba-shari‘a Sufi traditions emphasize devotion to God but
differ in their approach to Islamic law. The be-shari‘a Sufis, such as
Qalandars and Madaris, rejected the formal observance of the shari‘a, embracing
mendicancy, celibacy, and asceticism. They often defied established norms and
rituals, focusing instead on personal mystical experiences. On the other hand,
the ba-shari‘a Sufis, like the Chishtis, followed the shari‘a and
maintained a closer alignment with orthodox Islamic practices. Despite these
differences, both groups shared the goal of achieving a direct connection with
the divine.
Q. No. 4
Question: Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars, and
Virashaivas expressed critiques of the caste system. (100-150 words)
Answer:
The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu, and the Virashaivas of Karnataka,
challenged the caste system in various ways. The Alvars and Nayanars included
members from diverse social backgrounds, including castes considered
“untouchable,” thereby opposing Brahmanical dominance. Their compositions
were in Tamil, a language accessible to all, rather than Sanskrit, which was
reserved for the elite. Similarly, the Virashaivas, led by Basavanna, rejected
caste distinctions, especially the Brahmanical notions of purity and pollution.
They advocated for social equality, widow remarriage, and rejected the idea of
rebirth, which upheld the caste hierarchy. These movements fostered inclusivity
and social reform.
Q. No. 5
Question: Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Baba Guru
Nanak, and the ways in which these have been transmitted. (100-150 words)
Answer:
Kabir’s teachings emphasized monotheism, rejecting idol worship and rituals of
both Hinduism and Islam. He advocated for a personal relationship with the
divine, referring to God as Ram, Allah, or Khuda. Kabir criticized religious
divisions and urged people to rise above caste and creed. His teachings,
expressed in simple yet profound verses, have been preserved in the Kabir
Bijak, Kabir Granthavali, and the Adi Granth. These compositions were passed down
through oral traditions before being compiled into manuscripts. Kabir’s verses
continue to inspire reformist movements and are recited by his followers, known
as Kabirpanthis.
Q. No. 6
Question: Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterized
Sufism. (Short Essay – 250-300 words)
Answer:
Sufism is a mystical form of Islam that emphasizes devotion and love for God as
the path to salvation. Sufis believe in inner purification and the direct
experience of God through meditation and asceticism. The central practice of
Sufism is the remembrance of God (zikr), often achieved through chanting,
music, and dancing. Sufis reject materialism and focus on leading a simple,
austere life. They emphasize following the example of the Prophet Muhammad,
whom they regard as the perfect human being. Sufi masters, known as shaikhs or
pirs, established spiritual lineages (silsilas), creating chains of
discipleship that connected them to the Prophet.
Sufi practices
often revolve around the khanqah, or hospice, where disciples gathered for
spiritual instruction. Rituals like sama‘ (mystical music) were common in many
Sufi orders, particularly the Chishtis, who adopted local devotional practices.
Pilgrimage (ziyarat) to the dargah (tomb) of a Sufi saint was another important
practice. Sufism’s adaptability allowed it to merge with local traditions,
making it popular among different social groups in the Indian subcontinent. Its
emphasis on love, devotion, and equality appealed to both Muslims and
non-Muslims, fostering a shared spiritual culture.
Q. No. 7
Question: Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with
the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis. (Short Essay – 250-300 words)
Answer:
Rulers in the Indian subcontinent sought to establish connections with the
traditions of the Nayanars and Sufis to enhance their political legitimacy and
gain popular support. The Nayanars, who were devoted to Shiva, had a strong
influence on Tamil society, particularly among the Vellala peasants.
Recognizing this, Chola rulers, such as Parantaka I, built temples and
commissioned sculptures that reflected the visions of the Nayanars. This not
only aligned the rulers with the popular devotional traditions but also
reinforced their claims of divine authority.
Similarly, the
Sufis, particularly the Chishtis, had a wide following across different social
groups, including artisans, peasants, and traders. Rulers like the Delhi
Sultans and the Mughal emperors sought the blessings of Sufi saints to
legitimize their rule. Akbar, for instance, visited the shrine of Khwaja
Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer several times, offering gifts and seeking divine
support for his conquests. By associating themselves with revered saints, rulers
could appeal to a broader section of society, including both Muslims and
non-Muslims, thus consolidating their power and reinforcing their authority.
Q. No. 8
Question: Analyse, with illustrations, why bhakti and sufi thinkers
adopted a variety of languages in which to express their opinions. (Short Essay
– 250-300 words)
Answer:
Bhakti and Sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages to make their teachings
accessible to a broader audience, particularly the common people. Bhakti poets
like the Alvars and Nayanars composed their devotional hymns in Tamil, which
was the language of the people, allowing their messages to reach a wide
audience, including those who were not literate in Sanskrit, the language of
the elites. Similarly, Kabir’s verses were composed in the local dialects like
Hindi and Sant Bhasha, making them accessible to both Hindus and Muslims. His
use of simple, colloquial language enabled him to communicate complex spiritual
ideas to ordinary people, transcending the barriers of caste and religion.
Sufi saints
also embraced local languages to connect with the masses. For example, the
Chishti Sufis in Delhi conversed in Hindavi, the language of the common people,
while Sufi poets like Baba Farid wrote in Punjabi, which allowed their
teachings to resonate with a larger audience. The use of local languages also
helped integrate Islamic teachings with the local cultural traditions. Sufi
poetry, such as the prem-akhyan (love stories) written in Dakhani Urdu, and
devotional songs in languages like Gujarati and Sindhi, exemplified the fusion
of Islamic spiritualism with regional cultural expressions. By using languages
spoken by ordinary people, Bhakti and Sufi thinkers ensured that their messages
of love, devotion, and equality reached across social and religious boundaries,
promoting spiritual inclusivity.
Q. No. 9
Question: Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and
discuss the social and religious ideas that are expressed in them. (Short Essay
– 250-300 words)
Answer:
The social and religious ideas expressed in the sources included in this
chapter highlight themes of devotion, equality, and critique of orthodox
practices. For instance, Source 1 by Tondaradippodi, an Alvar saint,
emphasizes devotion to Vishnu over caste distinctions. He points out that
Vishnu favors his devoted servants, even if they are born outcastes, over
learned Brahmanas who lack true devotion. This reflects the Alvars’ challenge
to the caste system and emphasis on personal devotion.
Source 3, a poem by Karaikkal Ammaiyar,
presents her as a devotee of Shiva who renounces traditional feminine beauty
and social obligations in pursuit of spiritual enlightenment. Her depiction as
a Pey (demoness) contrasts sharply with societal expectations of women,
highlighting the role of women in challenging patriarchal norms through
devotion.
Source 4, a vachana by Basavanna, criticizes
ritualistic practices and emphasizes the need for sincere devotion over the
performance of empty rituals. He mocks the hypocrisy of those who revere stone
images of serpents but fear real ones, thereby advocating for a more genuine,
personal connection to the divine.
Source 7, from the writings of Dargah Quli
Khan, describes the inclusivity of Sufi shrines, where both Hindus and Muslims
gather for healing and spiritual blessings. This underscores the syncretic
nature of Sufi traditions that transcended religious divisions.
Finally, Source
11, a song attributed to Mirabai, illustrates her defiance of social norms
and her deep devotion to Krishna, emphasizing the supremacy of divine love over
worldly obligations. These sources collectively reflect a critique of societal
hierarchies and promote devotion as the true path to spiritual fulfillment.
Map Work
Q. No. 10
Question: On an outline map of India, plot three major Sufi shrines and
three places associated with temples (one each of a form of Vishnu, Shiva, and
the goddess).
Answer:
For this map work, you would plot the following:
- Sufi shrines:
- Dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
in Ajmer, Rajasthan - Dargah of Shaikh Nizamuddin
Auliya in Delhi - Dargah of Baba Farid in Pakpattan,
Punjab (Pakistan) - Temples:
- Vishnu temple: Jagannath Temple in Puri,
Odisha - Shiva temple: Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur,
Tamil Nadu - Goddess temple: Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati,
Assam
(Use a map of
India to mark these locations appropriately.)
Projects:
Q. No. 11
Question: Choose any two of the religious teachers/thinkers/saints
mentioned in this chapter, and find out more about their lives and teachings.
Prepare a report about the area and the times in which they lived, their major
ideas, how we know about them, and why you think they are important.
Answer:
For this project, you will need to conduct additional research on two religious
figures. Choose from figures like Kabir, Baba Guru Nanak, Basavanna, or
Mirabai, and gather information on their lives, teachings, and significance.
Discuss how their teachings responded to the social and religious issues of
their time and how their messages have been preserved through oral and written
traditions.
Q. No. 12
Question: Find out more about practices of pilgrimage associated with
the shrines mentioned in this chapter. Are these pilgrimages still undertaken?
When are these shrines visited? Who visits these shrines? Why do they do so?
What are the activities associated with these pilgrimages?
Answer:
This project involves exploring the ongoing practices of pilgrimage to shrines
like the dargahs of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti or Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya. Research
the timing of the pilgrimages (for example, during Urs), who visits (both
Muslims and non-Muslims), and the religious or spiritual motivations behind
these pilgrimages. Describe the rituals and activities associated with the
visits, such as offerings, prayers, and community feasts (langar).